Tea, an integral part of daily life across the globe, holds a special place not only in culinary practices but also in cultural and historical narratives. Whether as a ceremonial drink in China or a commodity traded globally, tea embodies multiple cultural meanings, social practices, and even political dynamics. While tea consumption has been commercialized in many parts of the world, its historical and cultural weight remains significant. From its origins in China to its role in colonialism, nationalism, and the modern consumer market, tea has undergone a transformation that is deeply intertwined with global and local power structures.
The study of tea from an anthropological perspective reveals how human societies have shaped and been shaped by the consumption, production, and exchange of tea. Tea’s role as a cultural symbol, a commodity, and an agent of social change makes it an important subject of anthropological inquiry. This paper seeks to expand on these themes by examining tea’s role in various regions, including China, India, Britain, and Africa, while engaging with debates and tensions among scholars about the intersections of tea, culture, and power.
1.Tea as Material Culture: The Production and Consumption of Tea
Tea is not merely consumed for its taste but plays a central role in shaping social identities and political dynamics. From the elite’s preference for ceremonial tea in China to the British middle class’s adoption of afternoon tea, the materiality of tea — its production, consumption, and trade — is deeply intertwined with the social fabric of tea-drinking societies. Tea as material culture is embedded in systems of labor, trade, rituals, and symbolism. Tea has been studied by anthropologists as a commodity that reflects and reinforces class divisions, social status, and, increasingly, global economic relations.
1.1 Chinese Tea Culture: Regional Tea Practices and National Symbolism
Tea in China is inextricably linked to the state’s cultural heritage and identity. From the Tang Dynasty to modern times, tea has evolved from an elite, ceremonial drink to a national symbol enjoyed by the masses. However, the meanings attached to tea vary significantly across different regions, reflecting local cultural practices, economic realities, and historical contexts. Two examples — Pu-erh tea from Yunnan and Rock Tea (Yancha) from Fujian — serve as excellent case studies of the regional variation and national significance of tea in China.
1.1.1 Pu-erh Tea: Tradition and Globalization in Yunnan
Pu-erh tea, produced in Yunnan Province, is one of China’s most famous and culturally significant teas. Traditionally consumed for its medicinal properties, Pu-erh has recently gained international acclaim for its aged varieties, which develop a unique flavor over time. Pu-erh tea is produced through a fermentation process, where the tea undergoes microbial fermentation and aging, which contributes to its distinctive earthy, woody, and sometimes musty flavors.
- Local and Regional Identity: In Yunnan, Pu-erh tea has long been a symbol of local ethnic identity, particularly for the Dai and Bai people, who have grown tea for centuries. Historically, the tea trade in Yunnan was not only an economic activity but also a marker of cultural connection to other parts of China and Southeast Asia. The “tea-horse road” (cha-ma gu dao), an ancient trade route, facilitated the exchange of Pu-erh tea with regions as far away as Tibet and Southeast Asia. Pu-erh tea thus serves as a symbol of regional autonomy, ethnic pride, and intercultural exchange.
- National Symbolism and Globalization: In recent decades, Pu-erh tea has become a national symbol of China’s tea culture and economic aspirations. As demand for high-quality Pu-erh has surged globally, particularly from Hong Kong, Taiwan, and increasingly, the United States, the tea’s value has skyrocketed, and it has become a commodity within the global market. This transformation from a locally consumed tea to a global commodity has raised questions about the implications for traditional tea-producing regions. Some scholars, such as Tanika Sarkar (2002), argue that this globalization has led to the commodification of local cultural heritage, with traditional practices now subject to market forces.
1.1.2 Rock Tea: The Cultural Significance of Fujian’s Oolong Tea
Rock Tea (Yancha), produced in the Wuyi Mountains of Fujian Province, is another prominent tea with a strong regional identity. Unlike Pu-erh, which is predominantly consumed for its medicinal properties, Rock Tea is prized for its complex, aromatic flavor and the unique terroir in which it is grown. The tea is known for its “rock rhyme”, a term used to describe the unique mineral flavor that results from the rich, rocky soil of the Wuyi Mountains.
- Cultural Significance in Fujian:Rock Tea has long been associated with Confucian values and elite culture in Fujian. In the Ming Dynasty (1368–1644), tea was a crucial aspect of scholar-official culture, and the Wuyi region’s tea was revered for its refined taste and aesthetic value. Scholars and tea connoisseurs would gather to appreciate the aroma and flavor of this tea, associating its fragrance with the virtue and elegance of its consumers. The unique mineral taste of the tea was believed to reflect the natural purity of the Wuyi region’s environment, reinforcing the cultural connection between tea, nature, and social class.
1.2 National and Global Significance:
Like Pu-erh, Rock Tea has become an important national product, promoted by the Chinese government as part of the country’s tea culture. In addition, its global market presence, particularly in Taiwan and Hong Kong, has made it a symbol of Chinese tradition in the broader global context. However, the growing international demand for Rock Tea has also led to concerns about its authenticity and the preservation of traditional production methods. Some scholars, such as James Watson (1988), have critiqued the rise of the global market for traditional teas, arguing that it may compromise local production practices in favor of commercial gains.
2. Tea, Social Identity, and Globalization
Tea is more than just a drink; it is a social ritual that has been carefully shaped by its consumers. Scholars like Homi Bhabha (1994) and Edward Said (1978) have written about the ways in which colonialism has shaped consumption practices and social identities. Tea has, over time, become a tool through which people communicate their class and cultural identity.
2.1 Tea and Nationalism in India
After independence, tea was reimagined as a symbol of modernity and national unity in post-colonial India. The Indian government promoted tea as a beverage that could be consumed by the entire population, regardless of class or caste. The Indian Tea Association, established in the 1950s, launched advertising campaigns urging citizens to drink tea as a symbol of national pride and self-sufficiency. Tea drinking, once associated with colonialism, was rebranded to represent India’s economic aspirations.
-
Case Study: The Darjeeling Tea and Indian Identity
Darjeeling, often referred to as the “champagne of teas,” became a symbol of Indian excellence after independence. While Darjeeling’s tea was originally cultivated by the British, it was later marketed as a product of Indian craftsmanship. Scholars like Tanika Sarkar (2002) argue that tea in post-colonial India became a cultural artifact, appropriated and redefined to symbolize the nation’s rise from colonial subjugation to economic independence.
2.2 Tea and the Role of Class in England
In England, tea became synonymous with social hierarchy. Tea drinking has long been associated with refinement and decency, particularly in the form of afternoon tea—a custom established by the British aristocracy. This ritualized consumption of tea marked the division between the upper classes and the working classes, with afternoon tea often seen as an exclusive practice of the elite.
-
Case Study: Afternoon Tea and British Social Status
The ritual of afternoon tea became a cultural symbol of aristocracy in Victorian England. Scholars like Martha Horne (1996) emphasize how tea was consumed as an act of social distinction, where the ritual itself was a marker of social class. This practice, initially promoted by the Duchess of Bedford in the 19th century, was later institutionalized across British society and became a key part of the British elite’s identity. Tea was not just about drinking; it was a way of demonstrating one’s place in the social hierarchy.
3. Tea as Global Commodity: The Tension Between “Globalization” and “Local Identity”
The transformation of tea into a global commodity has raised significant questions about the relationship between globalization and local identity. As tea has spread beyond its cultural origins, it has become entangled in global trade networks and commercial interests, often losing its original cultural meanings. However, tea’s journey from local commodity to global market product also highlights the ways in which tea consumption remains deeply connected to local identities and cultural heritage.
3.1 Tea and Colonialism: India, Ceylon, and the British Empire
During British colonial rule, tea became a focal point of both imperial economy and social hierarchy. The British East India Company began cultivating tea in India, transforming the subcontinent into one of the largest tea producers in the world. The forced cultivation of tea in colonies, particularly in Assam, Darjeeling, and Sri Lanka, reshaped local economies and societies. Sanjay Subramanian (2004) discusses the exploitation of labor in Indian tea plantations, highlighting the commodification of tea within the imperial system. Indigenous populations were often displaced or coerced into working on tea plantations, where they were subjected to harsh labor conditions.
-
Case Study: The Assam Tea Plantations
Assam’s tea plantations are a vivid example of how colonialism altered local culture and economics. Introduced in the early 19th century, tea became the backbone of Assam's economy, but its production was based on indentured servitude and exploitation of local labor. The labor force was often recruited from poorer regions of India, and later, workers were brought in from China and Africa. Tea thus became a symbol not just of economic prosperity for the British but also of social inequality and colonial control.
Nicholas Dirks (1993) analyzes how tea plantations were deeply entangled with colonial power structures, focusing on how tea cultivated in Assam was intended to bolster British consumption while suppressing local economies. The legacy of this is visible today in the identity of Assamese tea—now a commodity that represents both the region’s history of colonial subjugation and its modern success in the global market.
3.2 Arjun Appadurai and the Flow of Material Culture
Arjun Appadurai in his seminal work on the social life of things, argues that objects like tea are not passive commodities but active participants in social and cultural exchanges. Appadurai’s concept of the “flow of material culture” suggests that goods like tea are subject to global trade systems that transcend local boundaries, yet they also carry with them the cultural meanings and social histories of the places they come from.
- Tea as a Global Commodity:The global trade in tea, particularly black tea from India and Sri Lanka, green tea from China, and matcha from Japan, demonstrates how tea moves across cultures, adapting to new contexts and markets. In the West, for instance, tea has undergone significant re-contextualization. While it was once a symbol of British identity, it is now marketed as a health food or lifestyle choice in many parts of the world. This shift exemplifies the commercialization of tea and the detachment of the commodity from its cultural origins.
-
Local Identity and Globalization:Tea’s ability to maintain local cultural significance amidst globalization is also evident in how local communities resist or adapt to external influences. In Taiwan, for example, high-mountain oolong tea has become a source of local pride, where the indigenous production methods are promoted as a counterpoint to the commodification of tea in international markets. Appadurai argues that local communities often use global commodity chains to reinforce their cultural identity, transforming tea from a simple good into a symbol of resistance against the homogenizing forces of globalization.
3.3 James Ferguson and Tea in the Globalized Economy
James Ferguson (1999) explores how global commodities like tea interact with local economies and cultural practices. Ferguson’s analysis of the Zambian tea economy highlights how global trade systems impact the development of local industries, with tea production becoming a focal point of economic dependency and unequal exchange. Ferguson’s work underscores the tension between globalization and local development, where global economic forces often shape local agricultural practices, leading to the erosion of local autonomy.
In the case of Indian tea plantations, Ferguson’s analysis could be applied to explore how global demand for Ceylon tea and Assam tea has shaped local labor practices and regional development. The pressure to meet international market demand has sometimes led to environmental degradation and social inequality within local communities. The Fair Trade Movement in tea production, which advocates for equitable wages and environmentally sustainable practices, seeks to address these tensions, but the effectiveness of these initiatives remains a point of debate.
4. Conclusion: Tea as a Cultural Lens
Tea’s role as a global commodity and cultural artifact offers profound insights into the intersection of material culture, social identity, and globalization. Through the study of specific examples such as Pu-erh tea and Rock Tea, we can see how tea serves as a lens for understanding the broader tensions between local heritage and global trade systems. Tea’s ability to adapt to different cultural contexts while maintaining strong regional and national identities illustrates its unique place in the anthropological study of culture, power, and identity.
By examining the role of tea through the theoretical frameworks of scholars like Arjun Appadurai and James Ferguson, we gain a deeper understanding of how tea functions as a vehicle for cultural exchange, economic exploitation, and resistance. Tea’s journey from a local commodity to a global product highlights the complexities of material culture in a globalized world, where goods move across borders but still retain the cultural meanings and histories of their places of origin.
References
Alila, Patrick O. “Kenya Agricultural Policy: The Colonial Roots of African Smallholder, Agricultural Policy and Services.” Working Paper No. 327, Institute for Development Studies, University of Nairobi, November 1977.
Alam, Mohammed Jahangir, and Colin J. B. Woodroffe. “Sustainability of Tea Plantations in Bangladesh: A Case Study of the Surma Basin.” Journal of Environmental Management 100 (2012): 24-34.
Anitha, K. “Socio-Economic Conditions of Tea Plantation Workers in Kerala.” Indian Journal of Labour Economics 57, no. 1 (2014): 63-80.
Barooah, Mridul, and Indranil Biswas. “Changing Dynamics of Assam Tea Industry: Issues and Challenges.” Economic and Political Weekly 49, no. 17 (2014): 59-67.
Bennett, Christine. “Tea and Sympathy: Women and Patriarchy in the British Empire.” Gender & History 14, no. 1 (2002): 142-158.
Bhowmik, Sharit K. “Tea Plantation Workers in Eastern and North Eastern India.” Economic and Political Weekly 27, no. 52 (1992): 143-145.
Chepkorir, B. M., Ann S., and K. G. Mbira. “Effect of Enriched Sheep Manure Rates on Physico-Chemical Parameters of Tea Soil in Timbilil Tea Estate, Kericho, Kenya.” International Journal of Plant & Soil Science 25 (2018): 1-7.
Cong, Bien N., Thi Minh Phuong N., and Thi Thu Cuc N. “Developing Tea Market through Analyzing the Value Chain of Vietnam Tea Industry.” PSAKUIJIR 7, no. 2 (2018): 189-195.
Cu, N. X., and Thu T. T. T. “The Effects of Fern (Gleichenia linearis) Mulching on Soil Properties, Humus Substance, and Microbial Fauna in Soils Growing Tea in Phu Tho Province, Vietnam.” International Journal of Science Research 3, no. 8 (2014): 1915-1919.
Das, S., P. K. Borua, and R. M. Bhagat. “Soil Nitrogen and Tea Leaf Properties in Organic and Conventional Farming Systems under Humid Sub-Tropical Conditions.” Organic Agriculture 6, no. 2 (2016): 119-132.
Dasgupta, Susmita, Craig Meisner, David Wheeler, Xuyen K., and Lam N. T. “Pesticide Poisoning of Farm Workers: Implications of Blood Test Results from Vietnam.” International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health 210 (2007): 121-132.
De Silva, M. S. D. L. “The Effects of Soil Amendments on Selected Properties of Tea Soils and Tea Plants (Camellia sinensis L.) in Australia and Sri Lanka.” James Cook University, 2007.
Deka, N., and K. Goswami. “Economic Sustainability of Organic Cultivation of Assam Tea Produced by Small-Scale Growers.” Sustainable Production and Consumption 26 (2021): 111-125.
Doan, T. T., T. Henry-des-Tureaux, C. Rumpel, J.-L. Janeau, and P. Jouquet. “Impact of Compost, Vermicompost, and Biochar on Soil Fertility, Maize Yield, and Soil Erosion in Northern Vietnam: A Three Year Mesocosm Experiment.” Science of the Total Environment 514 (2015): 147-154.
Doanh, N., N. Thuong, and Y. Heo. “Impact of Conversion to Organic Tea Cultivation on Household Income in the Mountainous Areas of Northern Vietnam.” Sustainability 10, no. 12 (2018): 4475.